The Origins of the Legend
Historians continue to speculate if King Arthur, Mordred and the other scenes and players in the legend have any historical basis. For the most part the story is associated with fifth or sixth century Wales. If a prototype for Arthur did exist he might have been a Celtic chieftain rallying his forces to fight off the Saxon invaders. References have been found to figures that might have been the model for King Arthur in some of the scare writings that survive from the Saxon period in British history, but none of the associations made are conclusive. Two Medieval writers share the responsibility for publicising the tale and incorporating in it many of the elements familiar to us today.
In 1138 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote a history of the Kings of Britain. Many allege that he drew more on his imagination than on any older records that had come to his notice. Others claim that some of what he wrote corresponds with information in earlier documents that have now come to light. Whatever the authenticity of his facts, Geoffrey introduced his readers to a King Arthur, Queen Guinevere, Merlin the Wizard and of course, King Arthur’s arch enemy Mordred. In this version of the tale King Arthur goes to fight against the Roman Empire in Gaul (France of today). The evil Mordred takes advantage of the opportunity to usurp Arthur’s throne and take Queen Guinevere as his wife. The news reached King Arthur on campaign. He returns to his kingdom and fights a fierce battle with Mordred at a place called Camlann, Mordred is killed but Arthur is mortally wounded.
In the late medieval period Thomas Malory published a revised and comprehensive version of the Arthur stories, entitled “The Death of Arthur” (Le Morte d’Arthur). The publication of this work coincided with the introduction of the printing press. Malory’s work became one of the first books printed in England and standardised many aspects of the Arthur legend, for example, the idea of Arthur and his knights sitting at the Round Table dates from this publication. The bitter enmity between Arthur and Mordred continues to form a key part of the story but in a key change from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s narrative Queen Guinevere remain loyal to King Arthur.
Why have these tales survived the years?
The fact that the reader of this article is likely to be familiar with tales of Arthur and Mordred is a testimony to their enduring power. Yet they are more than simple stories. The Arthur tales have contributed culturally to the shaping of Britain’s identity. Over all these years they continue to serve a useful purpose. People are attracted by the idea that there was once an age when chivalrous knights rode about the British countryside fighting treacherous enemies like Mordred, or even supernatural dragons and other monsters. During World War Two, tales of Arthur’s bravery against the country’s enemies provided a rallying point for resistance to German aggression. Today the interest is probably largely of an escapist nature. Regardless of whether or not there is a basis in history, it seems that tales of Arthur and Mordred still serve a purpose in our hi-tech age.
References
The Legends of King Arthur and His Knights
by James Knowles
PIBN: 1000104500
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Said to have been based on Mark Twain’s Memoir, Life on the Mississippi, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn follows the life of a young adventurous boy (Huck Finn) as he runs away from both his guardian, the Widow Douglas and his father Pap. He accidentally teams up with another runaway, a slave named Jim.
As the two set off they hope to find freedom from different things; Huck from both the thought of being “civilized” and his drunken father, and Jim from his current life. Jim is a slave and is running away to become a free man so he can in turn free his family from slavery.
The two unlikely friends journey down the Mississippi in what turns out to be a series of adventures filled with death, disguise and eventually not just the growth and maturity of their friendship but also of Huck. The river, on which their journey is set, is an important motif and acts as both the agent that brings the two closer to their destination as the motion that pushes Twain’s story along.
The Mississippi is the fourth largest river in the world and stretches over ten US states. What has made the Mississippi River so famous is not only the importance it plays to those towns surrounding it but the way in which Mark Twain uses the river in many of his literary works as an important motif.
Twain retells his experiences on the Mississippi river in a memoir published in 1883, centered on his life as a steamboat pilot. It follows his journeys on the Mississippi from St Louis to New Orleans. His own experiences were what inspired the 1834 novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Twain’s recount of Huck’s journey along the river maps the road to the young boy discovering himself.
One of the most obvious features of the river is the way in which it provides a hidden getaway for anyone who wants a quick way out of town. Because the river spans so many states, one could easily hide in one of the many towns that the river passes though. The river acts as a back road and is the first option for making hasty retreat.
It begins as a friendly journey as Jim and Huck gain a raft and food that has been washed up. Twain seems to point out how giving the river can be and how much they can hide comfortably on this hidden trail, but it doesn’t stay calm for too long.
Their subsequent encounters with hoodlums, thieves, liars and murderers shows that just like the river that can be friendly on some days and rough and engulfed in fog on other days, such are their experiences; they might be able to sail smoothly and bask in the sunshine and the quietude on parts of their adventures, but not far downstream they can encounter rough waters.
Another astounding feature worthy of mentioning is the way in which Twain seems to compare the Mississippi river with the aristocracies. Huck ends up meeting a family known as the Grangerfords and realizes they have been locked in a feud for years with their neighbors, the Shepherdsons , a family with whom they attend church. There is no difference with life on the Mississippi and life among these people.
Their longstanding feud erupts when two members of either family decided to elope. The feud turns deadly and seems to reflect Huck’s earlier experiences on the river where a feud between friends ended in death. There is a stark comparison between the two worlds as Huck seems to have been caught in between the two.
Twain’s love for the Mississippi river is no doubt evident in the novel. It is portrayed not just a long and winding avenue that leads out of town and away from potential conflicts but a road that enables one to find themselves.]]> 
The novel begins with Esther emerging from prison holding Pearl, her illegitimate baby whom she had borne out of an act of adultery. She had a smile on her face and the Letter “A” was delicately embroidered on her bosom. She had embroidered it beautifully and had made it into a “gorgeous luxuriance of fancy that it had all the effect of a last and fitting decoration”. What should be a symbol of shame for her is portrayed as a symbol of resilience.
Esther does not hold her head in shame or seem remorseful, leading many of her critics to believe that she did not see the need to be sorry for her actions. She turns a potentially degrading symbol into something that helps her to earn her keep even during a time when women had little or no power and were seen as the inferior sex.
In the 17th century some women who were found guilty of this kind of crime were punished by flogging, and in extreme cases were put to death. Men on the other hand were normally handed down a less severe punishment, as the blame was given only to women. Had Reverend Dimmesdale been revealed as Pearl’s father, his level of punishment might have been lesser than Esther’s. In fact, Dimmesdale being exposed as Pearl’s father might not have made a difference in his own life at all.
Dimmesdale hides behind his deeds and suffers in silence. He turns out to be the opposite of what puritan men should be like; headstrong. Puritans believed that men should lead yet Hawthorne had Esther leading Dimmesdale by providing a shoulder for him and by having her formulating all their plans.
The author uses the reverend to represent a flaw within Puritan authority figure. He submits to sins with Esther when he should be helping her stay on the right path. Many believe Hawthorne mocks the church by presenting the male religious figure, as weak and desolate.
That Dimmesdale’s and Esther’s daughter Pearl is the manifestation of the actual act of adultery was also seen as an important contribution to The Scarlet Letter’s representation. For puritans, children were born into the sins of their parents and Pearl, born out of an act of sin was the perfect example.
Women were educated from very young and prepared to take over the domestic duties. They were expected to be, like their mothers, good wives and mothers and to uphold the puritan belief systems. Esther however, did not instill these rules into Pearl.
The church believes that it is their duty to interfere and does, only to no avail; Esther has no intention of allowing the church to take her child away. This again demonstrates the authority that Hawthorne gives to Esther.
The fact that Hawthorne made Esther into a heroine gives the impression that he wanted to point out that females can be authority figures and that some of rules the puritans meted out were as harsh as they were silly. No amount of punishment, ridicule and disgrace could make Esther crumble under the watchful eyes of the Puritans making Esther one of the most popular heroines of classic literature.
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