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Neolithic Britons Used Spectacular Stone Monuments for Astronomy

Astronomy Shown to be set in standing stone

Archaeological Science: Reports, give fresh insight into the relationships ancient Britons held with the sky; connecting the earth to astronomical phenomena through spectacular monuments. “Nobody before this has ever statistically determined that a single stone circle was constructed with astronomical phenomena in mind – it was all supposition,” said project leader and University of Adelaide Visiting Research Fellow Dr Gail Higginbottom, who is also a Visiting Research Fellow at the Australian National University. Callanish, on the Isle of Lewis, and Stenness, Isle of Orkney; are the oldest stone circles in Scotland, built during the late Neolithic over 5000 years ago. It has long been thought that the megaliths were laid out to reflect the cosmos, but the quantitative tests carried out by the team on the patterns of alignment of the standing stones have finally provided convincing evidence that this was indeed the case. The team found a great concentration of alignments towards the Sun and Moon at different times in their cycles. What’s more, it seems that 2,000 years later simpler monuments were still being built which had at least one of the astronomical alignments found at the great circles. Remarkably, the monuments are not just connected with the Sun and Moon. According to the researchers, there is a complicated relationship between the stones, the surrounding landscape, the horizon and the movement of the Sun and Moon across that landscape. “This research is finally proof that the ancient Britons connected the Earth to the sky with their earliest standing stones, and that this practice continued in the same way for 2000 years,” said Higginbottom in a University of Adelaide press release. About half of the sites under analysis were surrounded by one landscape pattern, the other half by the complete reverse. “These chosen surroundings would have influenced the way the Sun and Moon were seen, particularly in the timing of their rising and setting at special times, like when the Moon appears at its most northerly position on the horizon, which only happens every 18.6 years,” explained Higginbottom. “For example, at 50% of the sites, the northern horizon is relatively higher and closer than the southern and the summer solstice Sun rises out of the highest peak in the north. At the other 50% of sites, the southern horizon is higher and closer than the northern, with the winter solstice Sun rising out of these highest horizons.” The findings paint a picture of just how sophisticated late-Neolithic societies in Scotland were, and the deep connection they had with their environment. It also offers some clues about their cultures, which have in general left precious little evidence. “These people chose to erect these great stones very precisely within the landscape and in relation to the astronomy they knew. They invested a tremendous amount of effort and work to do so. It tells us about their strong connection with their environment, and how important it must have been to them, for their culture and for their culture’s survival.” Featured Image: Copyright Douglas Scott. ]]>

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Team Recreates Bronze Age Trepanation Step-by-Step

Crane Trepanation

The Siberian Times that: “…the key to a successful surgery was the patient’s complete trust and confidence that the surgeon had the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out such an operation.” Another critical element was the patient’s ability to endure the pain. The plants that were being used as painkillers in other areas are not found in Siberia. Instead, the researchers identified other flora used by indigenous peoples to bring a person to an “altered state of mind.” They believe that magic mushrooms, cannabis and even ecstatic styles of dancing were all used for pain control during early brain surgery, 3,000 years ago in Russia. The team has been able to recreate the procedure based on the shape and inclination of the opening’s edges. It seems the patient was lying on his back with his head turned to the right, and that the surgeon likely stood to his left side. A wide cut through the skin and tissue to the bone was made, after which the skin and aponeurosis were peeled away. The shape of the hole suggests the bone was scraped rather than cut, to expose the dura mater. High survival rates following trepanation in ancient times were likely due to the fact that the operations were primarily extradural. After the operation, the opening would have been covered with skin; although it’s unclear if bandages or sutures were used, how the wound was drained, and how any bleeding was stopped. Of course, no written records are left, the experts however, theorize that ‘herbs or red-hot objects’ were used. The grave in which the skull was found had been looted in ancient times, and only a little more than the skull remained, including tubular bones fragments from the ribs and upper limbs. A traditional Karasuk-style knife was also found in the grave, but there is no indication it was used for the surgery. This study has been published in the International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. ]]>

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Mysterious Stone Spheroids Were Hunting Weapons

ancient spheroids

Science Reports. The team combined knowledge about how modern humans perceive an object’s ‘throwing affordance’ with mathematical analysis of the objects’ effectiveness as projectiles, to reach their conclusion. “Our study suggests that the throwing of stones played a key role in the evolution of hunting,” said Indianna University Bloomington professor Geoffrey Bingham, an author of the study, in a press release. “We don’t think that throwing is the sole, or even primary, function of these spheroids, but these results show that this function is an option that warrants reconsidering as a potential use for this long-lived, multipurpose tool.” A theoretical framework and computational tools developed at the Perception/Action lab at IU were the basis for the team’s conclusions. Bingham, the lab’s director, investigates human coordinated action and perceptual abilities. Part of this involves looking at throwing affordance: selecting the best object in terms of size, weight and shape for throwing at the greatest speed and distance, and causing the most damage. 55 ball shaped objects from the South African site were analysed in the lab. The team found that 81 percent of the stone balls were the optimal size, weight and shape to hit a target 25 metres away. Each of the stones is about the size of a tennis ball, but significantly heavier. In addition, the team simulated the motion the objects would undergo if thrown by an expert and the probability of causing damage to medium sized prey, such as an impala. Previous research on biomechanics and perception has shown that a human’s shoulder joint and visual perception are uniquely specialised for throwing objects at targets around 30 metres away. “Humans are the only animals — the only primates even — with that talent,” Bingham explained. “We can throw something to hit something else — like a quarterback throwing to the running back all the way down the field. That’s how in large measure we survived the ice ages. The available food was largely on hoof, or it was ‘mega-fauna,’ such as a mammoth. You don’t want to get close to them.” According to the team’s paper, most of the objects studied had weights that produce optimal levels of damage when thrown at prey. This puts serious doubt on the idea that they had been fashioned solely as simple percussive tools, which tend to be made to be as heavy as possible. “Imagine a human, searching for an object to throw so as to cause the most damage possible to potential prey or a competitor,” said Andrew Wilson of Beckett Leeds University in England, the study’s lead author. “This is a perceptual task: the person needs to perceive throwing-relevant properties of objects and be able to discriminate between objects that vary in those properties.” Bingham, along with former students and other colleagues, has been studying the complex mechanics of throwing for decades. He is in little doubt as to how significant it has been to human evolution. “The ability to throw great distances was not a small thing. It was how we got lunch.” For more information: www.nature.com Image courtesy of Judy Maguire]]>

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Ancient Trees Record “Radiation Bursts” in Their Rings

Tree Stump (2)

Proceedings of the Royal Society A, is available online here Image courtesy of Selbymay]]>

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Remains of Massive Structure Found Next to Stonehenge

Durrington Walls

The Independent, it seems as if those who had been responsible for shifting the local populace’s religious beliefs were attempting in some quite literal way to bury the past. Researchers are now gearing up to see if these religious revolutionaries were seeking to conceal their own history or if it was an attempt to erase the influence of another cultural group instead. The significance of this discovery is also high as this sudden change in religious worship is thought to have occurred nearly simultaneously with the transformation of the nearby Stonehenge site into its current configuration: a relatively small-diameter circle of giant stones, from its older, larger diameter configuration created by a multitude of medium-sized stones. The repurposing of Durrington Walls, the reconfiguration of Stonehenge and other, similar events occurring around Britain during this period of prehistory are thought to be part of the process of the Neolithic giving way to the Bronze Age. While it may not be possible to ever discern the political and religious conflicts and rivalries of this time, these new discoveries at Durrington provide some limited context for what may have been happening. ]]>

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Story of Jewish Great Revolt to be Rewritten by New Finds?

Sepphoris Diocaesarea (1)

Haaretz, both a dig conducted by researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem at Zippori and one conducted there by archaeologists from Kinneret College have found indications that regions in the Galilee – one of the biggest hotbeds of radicalized Judeans during the Great Revolt – may have been subjected to fewer reprisals at the hands of the Romans than previously thought. Frescoes found in Zippori dating to around 1,800 years in the past and a synagogue found in Nahal Tabor that predates the destruction of Jerusalem’s Second Temple have had researchers questioning what they know of the period. Zippori made a very public and controversial decision in 67 CE, during the early days of the Revolt. Town leaders declined to join in the rebellion, endearing it to Rome and sparing the city. While Jerusalem was sacked and reduced to rubble, Zippori became a major metropolitan center in the region with a mixed pagan and Jewish population, growing to house cyclopean structures and column-lined streets. One of the most impressive of these structures dating to Zippori’s heyday was found this summer, with Hebrew University’s Professor Zeev Weiss spearheading the endeavor. A multitude of colored fresco fragments were found within the structure’s ruins, including partial images of a leopard, a bird, some sort of horned animal that was likely a bull, and the head of a lion. The images are doubly noteworthy as the only other site in ancient Judea that has been found to have similar decorative touches is in Herodium, at Herod’s palace. These depictions are thought to have been a rare deviation from the Torah’s injunction against graven images. Weiss, who has been overseeing the uncovering of Zippori’s ancient ruins for decades, remarked that it’s a strong indication that the Jewish population was not displaced after the Great Revolt, though he was quick to say that there’s no evidence one way or another that Jews built it. However, with stone vessels and ritual baths existing from the time period as well, there are strong indications that pagan and Jewish communities were living side-by-side. Meanwhile, the Kinneret College dig has discovered the newest synagogue dating from the Second Temple period, bringing the grand total to eight found in Israel. The first to be discovered outside of an urban setting, the place of worship certainly predates the Great Revolt, as the historical record has shown that synagogues built after the failed revolution were prohibited from having regular prayer services or to house a Torah in an ark. According to Dr. Mordechai Aviam, the director of the excavation, the rural community survived the Great Revolt intact, much as Zippori did. “We now know that if there is a Jewish settlement that is identified by stone vessels and an absence of pig bones and we find a building with benches along the walls, that is a synagogue.” Having discovered a complex of buildings from the Roman period in the area, Dr, Aviam believes it was home to a large community who used the synagogue.]]>

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City of Lincoln Council’s Charter from 1301 Authenticated

King Edward I of England (2)

Phys.org as saying, “We are very proud of our historic charters in Lincoln, so it is incredible to find one that dates back this far. A find like this shows just how important a part Lincoln played in the country’s history, especially when you consider the other major charters that have links with the city such as the Charter of The Forest and Magna Carta.” ]]>

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Soldiers Massacre Peaceful Protesters at Peterloo

Peterloo Massacre

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Now You See Them, Now You Don’t. Petroglyphs Revealed on Beach

Petroglyph

Atlantic: “We consider these Waianae petroglyphs to be consistent with traditional pre-Cook Hawaiian petroglyphs. The ones we’ve seen appear to be those with a linear torso—commonly and regrettably referred to as ‘stick figure.’” Pre-Cook refers to the British explorer James Cook, who arrived in the Hawaiian Islands for the first time in 1778. Petroglyphs have been found at various historic sites all across the Hawaiian Islands, it’s uncommon however, to find them in such close proximity to the water according to a statement released by the state Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). Archaeologist Alton Exzabe, with the U.S. Army (which is responsible for the management of numerous Hawaiian archeological sites), said in the statement that the petroglyphs stand out for their size – one carving is almost 5 feet tall (1.7 meters) while the typical size of other petroglyphs is around one foot. Fingers and hands are also depicted, something else which is not typical. What the petroglyphs represent is a subject of debate among scholars. Several appear to be spiritual or sacred in nature, while others have been interpreted as simply markers of someone’s presence at the location, an ancient sort of “____ was here.” The Stasacks explained in the Atlantic that the meaning and symbolism can vary from location to location. Because of the relative isolation of Hawaii, it’s possible the petroglyphs are uniquely revealing in regards to Hawaiian culture. Dating the petroglyphs will also be challenging due to their exposure to seawater, and at this point is only speculative. Archaeologists have estimated the recently discovered engravings to be approximately 400 years old. In the statement from DLNR it’s said that the carvings may have been seen in the past by locals, but they’ve never been scientifically recorded. The sands have already covered them again. Glen Kila, who is a descendant of one of the first aboriginal families on the Waianae coast, told Seeker that the petroglyphs “record our genealogy and religion, it’s very important to know about the lineal descendants of the area and their understanding of these petroglyphs.” The Department of Land and Natural Resources is currently collaborating with the State Historic Preservation Division and the U.S. Army on a preservation plan for the petroglyphs, which are so fragile that even brushing the sand away from them can cause damage. Image courtesy of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. Additional images of the petroglyphs can be found here]]>

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Scientists May Have Finally Answered Why We Have Such Big Brains

Brain (2)

Scientific Reports, the newly released study suggests that the incredible development of the brain is connected to the formation of large, cooperative social groups. As humans started having to judge a person’s relative standing and making decisions about who to cooperate with, their brains’ were challenged like never before. The team of computer scientists from Cambridge believe it was this which promoted the rapid expansion of brain size over the last two million years. The authors also claim that their results show that evolution favours those who are willing to help and cooperate with others who are at least as successful as themselves. “Our results suggest that the evolution of cooperation, which is key to a prosperous society, is intrinsically linked to the idea of social comparison – constantly sizing each up and making decisions as to whether we want to help them or not.” explained lead author Roger Whitaker, from Cardiff University’s School of Computer Science and Informatics. “We’ve shown that over time, evolution favours strategies to help those who are at least as successful as themselves.” In comparison to almost every other animal, human brains are larger as a percentage of body weight. More remarkably, since the emergence of the first species of the Homo genus some two million years ago, the human brain has more than doubled in size. Compared to more distant ancestors such as the australopithecines, which lived between two and four million year ago, human brains have more than tripled in size. What accounted for this remarkable increase has long puzzled scientists. The Cardiff University team used computer modelling to run hundreds of thousands of simulations, or ‘donation games’, as a means to understand decision making strategies in simplified humans. From these simulations they attempted to understand why certain types of behaviour strengthened over time. For each round of the donation game, two simulated players were randomly selected from the population. The first player then made a decision on whether or not to donate to the second, based on a judgement of the second player’s reputation. If the player elected to donate, the first suffered a cost while the second received a benefit. Their reputation was then updated in light of their decision, before the next game was initiated. According to the team, the results suggest making relative judgments to help others has been important for human survival. They also claim that the complexity involved in having to regularly assess and reassess individuals has been difficult enough to promote the expansion of the human brain through the generations. Professor Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary psychologist from Oxford University who was involved in the study, previously proposed the social brain hypothesis. “According to the social brain hypothesis, the disproportionately large brain size in humans exists as a consequence of humans evolving in large and complex social groups.” he explained. “Our new research reinforces this hypothesis and offers an insight into the way cooperation and reward may have been instrumental in driving brain evolution, suggesting that the challenge of assessing others could have contributed to the large brain size in humans.” The implications of the study are not just limited to understanding our most ancient history, however. The authors suggest it could also be applied to engineering and in particular to the development of autonomous machines. “The models we use can be executed as short algorithms called heuristics, allowing devices to make quick decisions about their cooperative behaviour,” Professor Whitaker said. “New autonomous technologies, such as distributed wireless networks or driverless cars, will need to self-manage their behaviour but at the same time cooperate with others in their environment.” ]]>